History of Egypt
Five thousand years along the Nile. 11 eras, 2686 BCE to today.
Old Kingdom, 2686–2181 BCE
The age of the pyramid builders. Pharaohs ruled a unified Nile valley as living gods, backed by a literate bureaucracy that could feed, count and organise tens of thousands of workers.
Seat of power: Memphis
Rulers
- Djoser, Pharaoh, 3rd Dynasty, 2670–2650 BCE
- Khufu, Pharaoh, 4th Dynasty, 2589–2566 BCE
New Kingdom, 1550–1069 BCE
Egypt's imperial age. After expelling the Hyksos, warrior pharaohs built an empire from Nubia to Syria and poured its wealth into the temples of Thebes.
Seat of power: Thebes
Rulers
- Hatshepsut, Pharaoh, 18th Dynasty, 1479–1458 BCE
- Akhenaten, Pharaoh, 18th Dynasty, 1353–1336 BCE
- Ramesses II, Pharaoh, 19th Dynasty, 1279–1213 BCE
Ptolemaic Kingdom, 305–30 BCE
A Greek-speaking dynasty founded by one of Alexander the Great's generals ruled Egypt as pharaohs. Alexandria became the intellectual capital of the Mediterranean.
Seat of power: Alexandria
Rulers
- Ptolemy I Soter, King and Pharaoh, 305–282 BCE
- Cleopatra VII, Queen and Pharaoh, 51–30 BCE
Roman and Byzantine Egypt, 30 BCE–641 CE
Egypt became the granary of Rome, governed by a prefect who answered directly to the emperor. Later it was a heartland of early Christianity.
Seat of power: Alexandria
Rulers
- Augustus, Roman Emperor, 30 BCE–14 CE
- Heraclius, Byzantine Emperor, 610 CE–641 CE
Fatimid Caliphate, 969 CE–1171
A Shi'a Ismaili caliphate from North Africa conquered Egypt and founded a new royal city, al-Qahira, 'the Victorious'. Cairo became the centre of a Mediterranean trading empire.
Seat of power: Cairo
Rulers
- al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah, Caliph, 953 CE–975 CE
- al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, Caliph, 996 CE–1021
Ayyubid Sultanate, 1171–1250
Saladin ended the Fatimid caliphate, returned Egypt to Sunni Islam and made it the base of a state that reached Syria and Yemen and fought the Crusaders.
Seat of power: Cairo Citadel
Rulers
- Saladin, Sultan, 1174–1193
Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1517
Slave-soldiers trained as an elite cavalry seized power and ruled as sultans. They stopped the Mongols, expelled the last Crusaders and made Cairo the largest city of the Islamic world.
Seat of power: Cairo
Rulers
- Baybars, Sultan, 1260–1277
- Qaitbay, Sultan, 1468–1496
Ottoman Egypt, 1517–1805
The Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517 and ruled it through a governor sent from Istanbul, while Mamluk households kept much local power. Napoleon's invasion in 1798 shook the old order.
Seat of power: Cairo
Rulers
- Selim I, Ottoman Sultan, 1512–1520
- Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan, 1520–1566
Muhammad Ali dynasty, 1805–1922
An Ottoman officer, Muhammad Ali, made himself master of Egypt and started a programme of modernisation. His heirs, the khedives, built the Suez Canal, but debt led to British occupation in 1882.
Seat of power: Cairo
Rulers
- Muhammad Ali, Wali (Governor) of Egypt, 1805–1848
- Isma'il Pasha, Khedive, 1863–1879
Kingdom of Egypt, 1922–1953
Britain declared Egypt independent in 1922 but kept troops and influence. The country had a king, a parliament and lively politics, and Cairo was the centre of Arab film, music and literature.
Seat of power: Cairo
Rulers
- Fuad I, King, 1922–1936
- Farouk, King, 1936–1952
Republic of Egypt, 1953 to today
The monarchy was abolished in 1953. Leaders from the army have led the state since, through eras of Arab nationalism, war, peace with Israel and economic opening.
Seat of power: Cairo
Rulers
- Gamal Abdel Nasser, President, 1954–1970
- Anwar Sadat, President, 1970–1981
- Hosni Mubarak, President, 1981–2011
- Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, President, 2014 to today