Russian Empire

Russia, 1721–1917. Draft, not yet reviewed

The Russian Empire was an empire that extended across northern Eurasia from 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in 1917, forming the final era of Tsarist Russia and the wider Russian monarchy. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about 22,800,000 km2 (8,800,000 sq mi), roughly one-sixth of the world's landmass. Alexander II initiated major reforms, most notably the 1861 emancipation of all 23 million serfs. In 1917, mass unrest in Petrograd and army mutinies culminated in the February Revolution, which led to Nicholas II's abdication, the establishment of the Russian Provisional Government, and the proclamation of the Russian Republic.

Seat of power: Saint Petersburg

Rulers

Peter the Great

Emperor of all the Russias, 1721–1725

After his victory in the Great Northern War, Russia annexed a significant portion of the eastern Baltic coastline and was officially raised from a tsardom to an empire. Peter led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, Westernized, and based on the radical Enlightenment. On the shores of the Neva River, he founded Saint Petersburg.

Portrait of Peter the Great: Attributed to Jean-Marc Nattier, Public domain, file

Catherine I of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1725–1727

For most of her reign, Catherine I was controlled by her advisers. The real power, however, lay with Menshikov, Peter Tolstoy, and other members of the Supreme Privy Council.

Portrait of Catherine I of Russia: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file

Peter II of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1727–1730

Peter was also influenced by favorites like Prince Aleksey Dolgorukov, leading to a neglect of state affairs and the tightening of serfdom. Peter's reign was marked by disengagement, disorder, and indulgence.

Portrait of Peter II of Russia: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file

Anna I of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1730–1740

Much of her administration was defined or heavily influenced by actions set in motion by her uncle, Peter the Great, such as funding the Russian Academy of Science and measures which generally favored the nobility.

Portrait of Anna I of Russia: Louis Caravaque, Public domain, file

Ivan VI of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1740–1741

He was only two months old when he was proclaimed emperor and his mother, Anna Leopoldovna, named regent, but the throne was seized in a coup after little more than a year. Ivan and his parents were imprisoned far from the capital, and lived out their lives in captivity.

Portrait of Ivan VI of Russia: anonymous / Unidentified painter, Public domain, file

Elizabeth I of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1741–1762

She remains one of the most popular Russian monarchs because of her decision not to execute a single person during her reign, her numerous construction projects, and her strong opposition to Prussian policies. During her reign Elizabeth continued the policies of her father and brought about a remarkable Age of Enlightenment in Russia.

Portrait of Elizabeth I of Russia: Vigilius Eriksen, Public domain, file

Catherine II of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1762–1796

Her reign of over 34 years saw an era of prosperity during the Enlightenment in which many new cities, universities and theatres were established; large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe occurred; and the Russian Empire was recognised as a great power of Europe. She governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy.

Portrait of Catherine II of Russia: After Alexander Roslin, Public domain, file

Peter III of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1762–1762

He implemented many notable reforms during his reign, though he is criticised for undoing Russian gains in the Seven Years' War by forming an alliance with Prussia. After a 186-day reign, Peter III was overthrown by his wife, and soon died under unclear circumstances.

Portrait of Peter III of Russia: Lucas Conrad Pfandzelt, Public domain, file

Paul I of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1796–1801

He also imposed the first limitations on serfdom with the Manifesto of three-day corvee, sought to curtail the privileges of the nobility, pursued various military reforms which were highly unpopular among officers and was known for his unpredictable behavior, all of which contributed to the conspiracy that took his life. In 1799, he brought Russia into the Second Coalition against Revolutionary France alongside Britain and Austria; the Russian forces achieved several victories at first but withdrew after facing setbacks.

Portrait of Paul I of Russia: Vladimir Borovikovsky, Public domain, file

Alexander I of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1801–1825

As prince and during the early years of his reign, he often used liberal rhetoric but continued Russia's absolutist policies in practice. In the first years of his reign, he initiated some minor social reforms and (in 1803–1804) major liberal educational reforms, such as building more universities. He ruled Russia during the period of the Napoleonic Wars.

Portrait of Alexander I of Russia: George Dawe, Public domain, file

Nicholas I of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1825–1855

Nicholas's 29-year reign began with the failed Decembrist revolt. He is mainly remembered as a reactionary whose controversial reign was marked by geographical expansion, centralisation of administrative policies, and repression of dissent both in Russia and among its neighbors.

Portrait of Nicholas I of Russia: Georg von Bothmann, Public domain, file

Alexander II of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1855–1881

He is also known as Alexander the Liberator because of his historic Edict of Emancipation, which officially abolished Russian serfdom in 1861. In addition to emancipating serfs across the Russian Empire, Alexander's reign brought several other liberal reforms, such as improving the judicial system, relaxing media censorship, eliminating some legal restrictions on Jews, abolishing corporal punishment, promoting local self-government.

Portrait of Alexander II of Russia: Attributed to W. & D. Downey, Public domain, file

Alexander III of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1881–1894

He was highly reactionary in domestic affairs and reversed some of the liberal reforms of his father. During his reign, Russia fought no major wars, and he came to be known as The Peacemaker.

Portrait of Alexander III of Russia: Sergey Lvovich Levitsky, Public domain, file

Nicholas II of Russia

Emperor of all the Russias, 1894–1917

Nicholas II was the last Emperor of Russia from 1 November 1894 until his abdication in 1917, during the Russian Revolution. Despite ostensibly presiding over a constitutional monarchy, Nicholas resisted political reform and retained autocratic control over the nation's governance even after the establishment of the Duma.

Portrait of Nicholas II of Russia: Unknown author (originally uploaded to Wikimedia Commons on 22 August 2012 by Peruanec), Public domain, file

Culture

The period also saw major developments in literature, music, and the sciences.
Several architects participated in designing the Winter Palace, most notably the Italian Bartolomeo Rastrelli, in what became known as the Elizabethan Baroque style.
Peter I of Russia embarked on a policy of Westernization and expansion that was to transform the Tsardom of Russia into the Russian Empire and a major European power.

Picture

The Winter Palace is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the House of Romanov, the emperors of Russia, from 1732 to 1917.

Image: Godot13, CC BY-SA 4.0, file

Sources

Text adapted from the Wikipedia articles listed as sources, CC BY-SA 4.0.