Qing dynasty
People's Republic of China, 1636–1912. Draft, not yet reviewed
The Qing dynasty was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia which existed from 1636/1644 to 1912. The Qing dynasty reached its apex during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735-1796), who led the Ten Great Campaigns of conquest, and personally supervised Confucian cultural projects. Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and the United States forced the Qing government to sign unequal treaties, granting them trading privileges, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under their control, beginning the century of humiliation. The dynasty lasted until the Xinhai Revolution of October 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor in February 1912.
Seat of power: Beijing
Rulers
Hong Taiji
Emperor of China, 1636–1643
Hong Taiji was the second khan of the Later Jin dynasty and the founding emperor of the Qing dynasty. He conquered Inner Mongolia and the remainder of Manchuria and invaded Korea, which became a Qing tributary state. He was also responsible for changing the name of the Jurchens to Manchu in 1635, and changing the name of his dynasty from Great Jin to Great Qing in 1636.
Portrait of Hong Taiji: Anonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter, Public domain, file
Shunzhi Emperor
Emperor of China, 1643–1661
The Shunzhi Emperor was the second emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China proper. From 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of the prince regent Dorgon. After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the young Shunzhi Emperor started to rule personally.
Portrait of Shunzhi Emperor: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file
Kangxi Emperor
Emperor of China, 1661–1722
The Kangxi Emperor was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and one of the longest-reigning rulers in history. After assuming personal rule, Kangxi's attempt to revoke the fiefdoms of feudal princes sparked the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, which he suppressed.
Portrait of Kangxi Emperor: AnonymousUnknown author Qing Dynasty Court Painter, Public domain, file
Yongzheng Emperor
Emperor of China, 1722–1735
The Yongzheng Emperor was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing emperor to rule over China proper. A hard-working ruler, he aimed to create a more effective government, cracked down on corruption and reformed the personnel and financial administration. His reign also saw the formation of the Grand Council, an institution that had a major impact on the future of the dynasty.
Portrait of Yongzheng Emperor: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file
Qianlong Emperor
Emperor of China, 1735–1796
A highly ambitious military leader, he led a series of campaigns into Inner Asia, Burma, Nepal and Vietnam and suppressed rebellions in Jinchuan and Taiwan. The most significant of the campaigns conquered Xinjiang from the Dzungar Khanate. He ordered the Dzungar genocide.
Portrait of Qianlong Emperor: Giuseppe Castiglione, Public domain, file
Jiaqing Emperor
Emperor of China, 1796–1820
The Jiaqing Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fifth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. During his reign, he prosecuted Heshen, the corrupt favorite of his father and attempted to restore order within the empire while curbing the smuggling of opium into China. Assessments of his reign are mixed, either seen as the beginning of the end of the Qing dynasty, or as a period of moderate reform that presaged the intellectual movements of the 1860s.
Portrait of Jiaqing Emperor: Annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter, Public domain, file
Daoguang Emperor
Emperor of China, 1820–1850
The Daoguang Emperor was the seventh emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the sixth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign was marked by external disaster and internal rebellion. These include the First Opium War and the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion which nearly brought down the dynasty.
Portrait of Daoguang Emperor: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file
Xianfeng Emperor
Emperor of China, 1850–1861
The Xianfeng Emperor was the eighth emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China proper. During his reign, the Qing dynasty experienced several wars and rebellions including the Taiping Rebellion, the Nian Rebellion, and the Second Opium War. He was the last Chinese emperor to exercise sole power.
Portrait of Xianfeng Emperor: Qing Dynasty Court Painter, Public domain, file
Tongzhi Emperor
Emperor of China, 1861–1875
The Tongzhi Emperor was the ninth emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largely overshadowed by the rule of Empress Dowager Cixi. The Self-Strengthening Movement, in which Qing officials pursued radical institutional reforms following the disasters of the Opium Wars and the Taiping Rebellion, began during his reign.
Portrait of Tongzhi Emperor: Annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter, Public domain, file
Guangxu Emperor
Emperor of China, 1875–1908
The Guangxu Emperor was the tenth and penultimate emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. Cixi held political power for much of Guangxu's reign as regent, except for the period between his assumption of ruling powers in 1889 and the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898. Guangxu engaged intellectuals like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao to develop the Hundred Days' Reform program of 1898 to reverse the decline.
Portrait of Guangxu Emperor: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Puyi
Emperor of China, 1908–1912
Puyi was the last emperor of China, having reigned as the Xuantong Emperor of the Qing dynasty. In 1908, chosen by Empress Dowager Cixi to succeed the childless Guangxu Emperor, Puyi ascended the throne at age two with his father Prince Chun as regent. Following the Xinhai Revolution, Empress Dowager Longyu signed the abdication edict on Puyi's behalf; in return, the Articles of Favorable Treatment allowed him to retain his imperial title and remain in the Forbidden City.
Portrait of Puyi: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file
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Culture
- The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the Siku Quanshu, the largest collection of books in Chinese history.
- The controversial July 1645 Queue Order forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into the queue hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death.
- Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronised literature, theater and the arts.
Picture
The Summer Palace in Beijing was built by the Chinese Empress Dowager Cixi for quiet retreat and was an imperial garden during the Qing dynasty.
Image: xiquinhosilva, CC BY 2.0, file
Sources
Text adapted from the Wikipedia articles listed as sources, CC BY-SA 4.0.