Mongol Empire
Mongolia, 1206–1368. Draft, not yet reviewed
The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history. The empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol heartland under the leadership of Temüjin, known by the title of Genghis Khan, whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West, and the Pacific to the Mediterranean, in an enforced Pax Mongolica, allowing the exchange of trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies across Eurasia. By Kublai's death in 1294, the empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in Iran, and the Yuan dynasty in China, based in modern-day Beijing.
Seat of power: Xanadu
Rulers
Genghis Khan
Head of state, 1206–1227
Genghis Khan was the founder and first khan of the Mongol Empire. He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. After defeating the Naiman tribe and executing Jamukha, he was left as the sole ruler on the Mongolian steppe.
Portrait of Genghis Khan: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file
Ögedei Khan
Head of state, 1229–1241
Ögedei Khan was the second khan of the Mongol Empire. The third son of Genghis Khan, he continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun. As khan, Ögedei pursued the expansionist policies of his father.
Portrait of Ögedei Khan: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Güyük Khan
Head of state, 1246–1248
Güyük was the third Khagan of the Mongol Empire, and reigned from 1246 to 1248. During his almost two year reign, he reversed some of his mother's unpopular edicts and ordered an empire-wide census.
Portrait of Güyük Khan: Abdullâh Sultân (atelier). Shîrâz, Public domain, file
Möngke Khan
khagan, 1251–1259
Möngke Khan was the fourth khagan of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251 to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign. Under Möngke, the Mongols conquered Iraq and Syria as well as the Dali Kingdom (modern Yunnan).
Portrait of Möngke Khan: Abdullâh Sultân (atelier). Shîrâz, CC0, file
Kublai Khan
khagan, 1260–1294
He had succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty and formally claimed orthodox succession from prior Chinese dynasties. As emperor, he ordered invasions of Japan, Vietnam, Burma, and Java.
Portrait of Kublai Khan: Araniko, Public domain, file
Temür Khan
khagan, 1294–1307
Temür Khan was the second emperor of the Yuan dynasty of China, ruling from 10 May 1294 to 10 February 1307. He showed respect for Confucianism, and called off invasions of Burma, Đại Việt, and Japan. His reign was beset by corruption and administrative inefficiencies.
Portrait of Temür Khan: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Külüg Khan
khagan, 1307–1311
Külüg Khan was an emperor of the Yuan dynasty of China. His regnal name Külüg Khan means warrior Khan or fine horse Khan in the Mongolian language. He was sent to Mongolia to assume an army that defended the western front of the Yuan against Kaidu.
Portrait of Külüg Khan: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan
khagan, 1311–1320
Ayurbarwada was the first Yuan emperor who actively supported the adoption of Confucian principles into the administration system. Ayurbarwada reinstituted the civil service examination system for the Yuan dynasty.
Portrait of Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Gegeen Khan
khagan, 1320–1323
Gegeen Khan was an emperor of the Yuan dynasty. Despite the Emperor's aim to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, Temuder's faction linked up with the Alan guard and assassinated the emperor in 1323.
Yesün Temür Khan
khagan, 1323–1328
Yesün Temür was an emperor of the Yuan dynasty from 1323 to 1328. Yesün Temür was very fond of the traditional ways of the Mongols. He was probably the emperor visited by the Franciscan friar Odoric, who left an excellent record of his travels.
Jayaatu Khan
khagan, 1328–1332
Jayaatu Khan was an emperor of the Yuan dynasty. He first ruled from 16 October 1328 to 26 February 1329 before abdicating in favour of his brother Kusala, and again ruled from 8 September 1329 to 2 September 1332 after Kusala's death. Tugh Temür sponsored many cultural activities, wrote poetry, painted, and read Chinese classical texts.
Portrait of Jayaatu Khan: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Ragibagh Khan
khagan, 1328–1328
Ragibagh was a son of Yesün Temür who was briefly installed to the throne of the Yuan dynasty in Shangdu in 1328. He was the shortest-reigning Yuan emperor.
Rinchinbal Khan
khagan, 1332–1332
Rinchinbal was briefly installed to the throne of the Yuan dynasty, but as a young boy he died within two months after being installed to the throne.
Portrait of Rinchinbal Khan: AnonymousUnknown author, Public domain, file
Toghon Temür
khagan, 1333–1370
Toghon Temür was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first emperor of the Northern Yuan dynasty. His early reign was dominated by powerful ministers, first El Temür and then Bayan, until he engineered Bayan's removal in 1340 with the help of Toqto'a. During the latter part of his reign, widespread natural disasters and fiscal crises fuelled popular unrest, culminating in the Red Turban Rebellion of 1351.
Portrait of Toghon Temür: 松照庵, Public domain, file
Culture
- In addition to laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade.
- Genghis encouraged literacy and the adaptation of the Uyghur script into what would become the Mongolian script of the empire.
- Nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability, the Pax Mongolica, and international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe.
Picture
Genghis Khan was the founder and first khan of the Mongol Empire.
Image: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, file
Sources
Text adapted from the Wikipedia articles listed as sources, CC BY-SA 4.0.